Reflection

Steven Tan:

In this grading I have learned a lot of things. The topics we had were really knowledgeable for me and for my classmates. I will remember the things that I have learned this grading throughout my whole life. These topics that we’ve encountered are a big help for me. It added a lot of Intel into my brain. I really think these topics helped me a lot. It made me more curious about things. The first topic was all about the explorers around the world. I have learned a lot about this and certain people that has traveled around the world, westward and eastward. I learned that there were a lot of treaties in our history. I also knew that Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigated the earth and proved that it is not flat. I also learned that the world was cut into two parts and that Spain owned the eastern part of the world and Portugal owned the western part of the world. The world was separated to avoid war and to avoid problems from Spain and Portugal. I have been always interested in this topic for a long time now and I thank sir for teaching us this topic clearly and better than any other teacher out there. I really commend Sir and also my classmates for giving me the courage and strength to help me in throughout this topic. The second topic was all about the scientific, enlightenment and industrial period in which machines started to rise in power and that the cures, rights and freedom occurred. John Locke’s legacy which is human rights really helped us a lot in our life and in another life. These periods is really a big help for all of us and for those who are really in need. I really want to thank everyone in that period for everything they have done to us all. These discoveries lead to us being more advanced in everything not only on technology but in our social and economic life. The discoverers was really famous in this period because they were the ones who really made a difference for everyone alive today and back in their day.

Robe Tabasa:

In the third grading i learn but some is not and i learn from the topic is all about renaissance period,scientific revolution,enlightment period,and other topic in the third grading and i learn also the napoleon bonaparte and he is the great general in the french.

Beatriz Laolao:
In our topic about “The Renaissance and Reformation,” I learned that Italy is the birthplace of Renaissance. Renaissance focused on the individual because of the idea of Humanism. The early Humanists were Francisco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Desiderius Erasmus of Holland, Philip Melantchon, Thomas More, and Niccolo Machiavelli. The weakening of the Church, the breakdown of feudalism, and the geographical discoveries of the age, which widened man’s horizons to considerable extents, developed grater consciousness of the world and of its problems. This led to the Renaissance art which was full of emotion and feeling, vigorous, natural, and lifelike. The titans of this period were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Buonarroti, and Raphael Santi. After the Renaissance, the Reformation occurred which is the 16th-century religious movement that led to the establishment of the Protestant churches. The forerunners of the Reformation were John Wycliffe of England, John Huss of Bohemia, Girolamo Savonarola of Italy, Desiderius Erasmus of Holland, Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Knox and Ulrich Zwingli. The Counter Reformation happened afterwards led by Pope Paul III.

In our topic about “The Growth of Nation-States,” I learned that the medieval towns or burg created the name for a new class of people called Bourgeoisie which rose to power because of the money they had. Then, a new theory called Mercantilism emerged which stressed the significance of gold and silver. In England, a strong monarchy was built under the Norman kings, the Magna Carta was signed by King John, the Parliament was shaped under Edward I, and strong kings came after the War of Roses. In France, the government was strengthened by the Capetian Kings, the Hundred Years’ War occurred, and Joan of Arc inspired patriotism. Spain and Portugal separated to form separate states because of the kings’ differing ideas. Other European nations such as Sweden, Norway, and Denmark in the North, Poland and Hungary in the East, and Bohemia in the west also established their own nations. A strong central government also grew in Russia under Ivan the Great and Ivan the Terrible.

In our topic about “The Spread of European Power,” the Age of Exploration and Discoveries began to unfold. The reasons for this is the need for new trading routes, religion, renaissance ideas, writings of Marco Polo, and advance is technology and learning. The five pioneer countries of this age were Spain, Portugal, England, Netherlands, and France. This was known as the First Stage of Colonization which focused on discovery and can be compared to a first come, first serve basis. Afterwards, the Scientific Revolution which countered the ideas of ancient philosophers occurred. The popular scientists of this time were Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei,Isaac Newton, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler,Andreas Vesalius, William Harvey, Robert Hooke, Paracelsus, Ambroise Pare, Leopold Avenbrugger, Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen, Torricelli, Volta, Albert Einstein, Louis Pasteur, and Robert Boyle. Then, the Enlightenment Period occurred which stressed the importance of education, three branches of government, social contract, and human rights. The famous philosophers included Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, and Denis Diderot. Next, the Industrial Revolution and Agricultural Revolution occurred which are the times when machines were invented to make work faster and easier to do.

In our lesson about “Second Stage of Colonization,” I learned the Britain was the most powerful European country which colonized many countries. India revolted because they felt that their religions, Islam and Hinduism, were insulted. China revolted because they hated the exploitation and invasion of their country by foreigners. Japan became an imperialist nation and traded with the United States. Smaller Asian countries were also under Western rule. A rival came for Britain, and it was the United States. Like what happened to China and India, the Asian countries revolted because they were not happy with being ruled by the Western powers.

Sofia Shoon:
My learning in the 3rd Grading is I learned a lot but some is not. And I learned the topic is all about French revolution, The growth of nation state, Renaissance Period & American State Revolution. And I also learned that Napoleon Boenapart is the great geberal in French Revolution.

Frederick Cañosa:
In our Social Studies, I really learned many new things especially about the Past. I learned about the Renaissance Period, The Reformation Period. I learned about the History Of England, History Of France, The History Of America, and also about The Greeks. I think this was our topics during the 3rd Grading. I also learned many things about the Scientific Revolution. This was the age where New ideas and Informations were presented. Also there were many Scientist and Inventors at this time. Most common was Issac Newton who discovered the 3 Laws of Motion and Galileo Galilee who invented the telescope. There were many scientist, thanks to them, there ideas presented evolved and made changes to the world. I also learned about the Enlightenment Period where its is all about politics and laws that is created. Also about the Industrial Revolution, this was the time that machines where invented.

Keshaira Obo:
Last third grading, I can say that it was fun because I enjoyed the lessons Sir Rheymark taught us and because the lesson itself was enjoyable, specially the lessons about Napeleon Bonaparte. Sir Rheymark is a very good teacher, he teaches us more things and goes beyond from our expectations and I like that. Though, sometimes I’d complain because of too much paper works like I don’t write many things in the journal but mostly, I enjoyed because I really learn many things not just from the lesson but also about other things. And he elaborates it well so it’s much easier for us, his students to understand his lessons though, sometimes it’s boring so I just pretend to enjoy or listen. But, thanks to him I learned a lot of things. When I say a lot, means like too many even though I can’t remember all of them anymore I still say I learned a lot from him. Thanks to him my knowledge about history and other things grew. That is all thank you.

American Revolution

1760s

Further information: Category: 1760s in the Thirteen Colonies

1760

1760 – Pierre de Rigaud, Governor of New France, capitulates (September 8) to Field Marshal Jeffrey Amherst. This ends most fighting in North America between France and Great Britain in the French and Indian War. Amherst becomes the First British Governor-General of territories that would later become Canada plus lands (Ohio Country and Illinois Country) west of the American Colonies.

1760 – King George II of Great Britain dies (October 25) and is succeeded by his grandson George III.

1761

1761 - New England Planters immigrate to Nova Scotia, Canada (1759-1768) to take up lands left vacant after the Expulsion of the Acadians.

1763
1763 – The Treaty of Paris (February 10) formally ends the French and Indian War. France cedes most of its territories in North America to Great Britain, but Louisiana west of the Mississippi River is ceded to Spain.

1763 – Previously allied with France, Native American tribes in the Great Lakes region resist the policies of the British under Amherst. Pontiac's Rebellion begins, lasting until 1766.

The extent of America's territorial growth prior to the Revolution. The westward border established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 is shown.

1763 – King George's Royal Proclamation of 1763 (October 7) establishes administration in territories newly ceded by France. To prevent further violence between settlers and Native Americans, the Proclamation sets a western boundary on the American colonies.

1764

1764 – The Sugar Act (April 5), intended to raise revenues, and the Currency Act (September 1), prohibiting the colonies from issuing paper money, are passed by Parliament. These Acts, coming during the economic slump that followed the French and Indian War, are resented by the colonists and lead to protests.

1765

1765 – To help defray the cost of keeping troops in America, Parliament enacts (March 22) the Stamp Act, imposing a tax on many types of printed materials used in the colonies. Seen as a violation of rights, the Act sparks violent demonstrations in several Colonies. Virginia's House of Burgesses adopts (May 29) the Virginia Resolves claiming that, under British law, Virginians could be taxed only by an assembly to which they had elected representatives. Delegates from nine colonies attend the Stamp Act Congress which adopts (October 19) a Declaration of Rights and Grievances and petitions Parliament and the king to repeal the Act.

1765 – Parliament enacts (March 24) the Quartering Act, requiring the Colonies to provide housing, food, and other provisions to British troops. The act is resisted or circumvented in most of the colonies. In 1767 and again in 1769, Parliament suspended the governor and legislature of New York for failure to comply.

1766
1766 – The British Parliament repeals (March 18) the unpopular Stamp Act of the previous year, but, in the simultaneous Declaratory Act, asserts its "full power and authority to make laws and statutes ... to bind the colonies and people of America ... in all cases whatsoever".

1766 – Liberty Pole erected in New York City commons in celebration of the Stamp Act repeal (May 21). An intermittent skirmish with the British garrison over the removal of this and other poles, and their replacement by the Sons of Liberty, rages until the Province of New York is under the control of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress in 1775

1767

1767 – The Townshend Acts, named for Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend, are passed by Parliament (June 29), placing duties on many items imported into America.

1768

1768 - In April, England's Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Hillsborough, orders colonial governors to stop their own assemblies from endorsing Adams' circular letter. Hillsborough also orders the governor of Massachusetts to dissolve the general court if the Massachusetts assembly does not revoke the letter. By month's end, the assemblies of New Hampshire, Connecticut and New Jersey have endorsed the letter.

1768 - In May, a British warship armed with 50 cannons sails into Boston harbor after a call for help from custom commissioners who are constantly being harassed by Boston agitators. In June, a customs official is locked up in the cabin of the Liberty, a sloop owned by John Hancock. Imported wine is then unloaded illegally into Boston without payment of duties. Following this incident, customs officials seize Hancock's sloop. After threats of violence from Bostonians, the customs officials escape to an island off Boston, then request the intervention of British troops.

1768 - In July, the governor of Massachusetts dissolves the general court after the legislature defies his order to revoke Adams' circular letter. In August, in Boston and New York, merchants agree to boycott most British goods until the Townshend Acts are repealed. In September, at a town meeting in Boston, residents are urged to arm themselves. Later in September, English warships sail into Boston Harbor, then two regiments of English infantry land in Boston and set up permanent residence to keep order.

1769

1769 – To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York broadside published by the local Sons of Liberty (c. December)

1770s

Further information: Category: 1770s in the Thirteen Colonies

1770s in the United States: 1770, 1771, 1772, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779.

1770

1770 – Golden Hill incident in which British troops wound civilians, including one death (January 19)

1770 – Lord North becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain (January 28)

"The Boston Massacre," an engraving by patriot Paul Revere.

1770 – Boston Massacre (March 5)

1771

1771 – Battle of Alamance in North Carolina (May 16)

1772

1772 – Samuel Adams organizes the Committees of Correspondence

1772 – Gaspee Affair (June 9)

1772 – The Watauga Association in what would become Tennessee declares itself independent.

1773

1773 – Parliament passes the Tea Act (May 10)

1773 – Association of the Sons of Liberty in New York published by local Sons of Liberty (December 15)

1773 – Boston Tea Party (December 16)

1774

1774 – Benjamin Franklin, Massachusetts' agent in London, is questioned before Parliament

1774 – Lord Dunmore's War

1774 – British pass Intolerable Acts, including:

Boston Port Act (March 31)

Administration of Justice Act (May 20),

Massachusetts Government Act (May 20),

A second Quartering Act (June 2), and

Quebec Act

1774 – The Powder Alarm, General Gage's secret raid on the Cambridge powder magazine (September 1)

1774 – The First Continental Congress meets; twelve colonies send delegates

1774 – Burning of the HMS Peggy Stewart (October 19)

1774 - Petition to the King (October 26)

1774 – Greenwich Tea Party (December 22)

1775

Battles of Lexington and Concord.

1775 – Battles of Lexington and Concord, followed by the Siege of Boston (April 19)

1775 - Gunpowder Incident April 20)

1775 – Skenesboro, New York (now Whitehall, New York) captured by Lt Samuel Herrick. (May 9)

1775 – Fort Ticonderoga captured by Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold and the Green Mountain Boys. (May 10)

1775 – Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17)

1775 – The Second Continental Congress meets

1775 – Olive Branch Petition sent to King George III

1775 – Henry Knox transported fifty-nine captured cannons (taken from Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point) from upstate New York to Boston, MA. Trip took 56 days to complete. (Dec. 05, 1775 to Jan. 24,1776)

1776

1776 – New Hampshire ratifies the first state constitution

1776 – Thomas Paine publishes Common Sense (January 10)

1776 – Battle of Nassau (March 3–4)

1776 – Battle of Turtle Gut Inlet (June 29)

1776 – The Second Continental Congress enacts (July 2) a resolution declaring independence from the British Empire, and then approves (July 4) the written Declaration of Independence.

1776 – Battle of Long Island, a.k.a. Battle of Brooklyn (August 27)

1776 – British prison ships begin in Wallabout Bay, New York

1776 – Staten Island Peace Conference (September 11)

1776 – Landing at Kip's Bay (September 15)

1776 – Battle of Harlem Heights (September 16)

1776 – Great Fire of New York (September 21–22)

1776 – Nathan Hale captured and executed for espionage (September 22)

1776 – Battle of Valcour Island (October 11)

1776 – Battle of White Plains (October 29)

1776 – Battle of Fort Washington (November 16)

1776 – Battle of Fort Lee (November 20)

1776 – Battle of Iron Works Hill (December 23 – December 26)

Washington Crossing the Delaware

1776 – Battle of Trenton (December 26)

1777

1777 – Second Battle of Trenton (January 2)

1777 – Battle of Princeton (January 3)

1777 – Forage War

1777 – Battle of Bound Brook (April 13)

1777 – Middlebrook encampment (May 28 – July 2)

1777 – Fort Ticonderoga abandoned by the Americans due to advancing British troops placing cannon on Mount Defiance. (July 5)

1777 – British retake Fort Ticonderoga. (July 6)

1777 – Battle of Hubbardton (July 7, 1777)

1777 – Delegates in Vermont, which was not one of the Thirteen Colonies, establish a republic and adopt (July 8) a constitution—the first in what is now the territory of the United States to prohibit slavery. (Vermont would become the fourteenth state in 1791.)

1777 – Battle of Short Hills (July 26)

1777 – Battle of Oriskany (August 6)

1777 – Battle of Bennington (August 16)

1777 – Battle of Brandywine (September 11)

1777 – Battle of Paoli (Paoli Massacre) (September 20)

1777 – British occupation of Philadelphia (September 26)

1777 – Battle of Germantown (October 4)

Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga

1777 – Two Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7) conclude with the surrender of the British army under General Burgoyne.

1777 – Battle of Red Bank (October 22)

1777 – Articles of Confederation adopted by the Second Continental Congress (November 15)

1777 – Battle of White Marsh (December 5 – December 8)

1777 – Battle of Matson's Ford (December 11)

1777–1778 – Continental Army in winter quarters at Valley Forge (December 19 – June 19)

1778

1778 – Treaty of Alliance with France (February 6)

1778 – Battle of Barren Hill (May 20)

1778 – British occupation of Philadelphia ends (June)

1778 – Battle of Monmouth (June 28)

1778 - Capture of Savannah (December 28) British successfully launch their southern strategy

1778–1779 – Continental Army in winter quarters at Middlebrook encampment (November 30 – June 3)

1779

1779 – Battle of Stony Point (July 16)

1779 – Battle of Paulus Hook (August 19)

1779–1780 – Continental Army in winter quarters at Morristown (December–May)

1780s

1780s in the United States: 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783, 1784, 1785, 1786, 1787, 1788, 1789.

1780
Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown

January 15 – Congress establishes the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture to provide for final adjudication of appeals from state court prize cases involving disposition of ships and cargo allegedly seized from the British.

January 28 – A stockade known as Fort Nashborough is founded on the banks of the Cumberland River.Two years later the site is renamed Nashville.

February 1 – Some 8,000 British forces under General Henry Clinton arrive in Charleston, South Carolina, from New York.

February 1 – New York cedes to Congress its western claims, including territory west of Lake Ontario. In 1792 New York will sell the Erie Triangle to Pennsylvania

March 14 – Bombardment of Fort Charlotte: After a two-week siege, Spanish general, colonial governor of Louisiana, and Viceroy of New Spain Bernardo de Gálvez captures Fort Charlotte, taking the port of Mobile (in present-day Alabama) from the British. Fort Charlotte was the last remaining British frontier post capable of threatening New Orleans in Spanish Louisiana. Its fall drove the British from the western reaches of West Florida and reduced the British military presence in West Florida to its capital, Pensacola.

April 8 – Siege of Charleston: British Army troops under General Henry Clinton and naval forces under Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot besiege Charleston, South Carolina. British ships sail past Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island to occupy Charleston Harbor. Washington will order reinforcements to Charleston, but the city falls on May 12 in what is arguably the worst American defeat of the war.

May 6 – Siege of Charleston: Fort Moultrie falls to the British.

May 12 – Siege of Charleston: American General Benjamin Lincoln surrenders Charleston to the British. The British lose 255 men while capturing a large American garrison.

May 29 – Battle of Waxhaws: A clash between Continental Army forces under Abraham Buford and a mainly Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton occurs near Lancaster, South Carolina in the Waxhaws area (close to present-day Buford). The British destroyed the American forces.

June 6 – Battle of Connecticut Farms

June 23 – Battle of Springfield. With the attempted British invasion of New Jersey stopped at Connecticut Farms and Springfield, major fighting in the North ends.

August 16 - Battle of Camden. British General Cornwallis gains a humiliating victory over Gates in South Carolina.

September 23 – John André captured and the treason of Benedict Arnold is exposed

September 26 - Battle of Charlotte

October 7 – Battle of Kings Mountain

1781

January 17 - Battle of Cowpens

March 1 – Articles of Confederation ratified

March 15 – Battle of Guilford Court House

September 5 - Battle of the Chesapeake

September 8 - Battle of Eutaw Springs

October 19 – The British surrender at Yorktown

December 31 – Bank of North America chartered

1782

February 27 – The British House of Commons votes against further war, informally recognizing American independence.

December 14 – British evacuate Charleston, South Carolina

1783

Washington's Entry into New York by Currier & Ives

September 3 – The Treaty of Paris (1783) ends the American Revolutionary War

November 25 – The British evacuate New York, marking the end of British rule, and General George Washington triumphantly returns with the Continental Army.

1784

January 14 – The Treaty of Paris is ratified by the Congress.

April 9 – The Treaty of Paris is ratified by the British

May 12 – Ratified treaties are exchanged in Paris between the two nations.

August – "The state of Frankland," later known as Franklin, secedes from North Carolina

1785
Treaty of Hopewell (November 28)

Congress refuses admission of Franklin to the Union

1786
Shays' Rebellion

Annapolis Convention fails

1787

Northwest Ordinance

Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by Howard Chandler Christy.

Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia

Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey ratify the constitution

1788
North Carolina reconquers Franklin, which ceases to exist.

Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia and New York ratify the constitution

1789

United States presidential election, 1789

Constitution goes into effect

George Washington is inaugurated as President in New York City

The First United States Congress passes the Judiciary Act of 1789 and Hamilton tariff

Jay–Gardoqui Treaty

November 21 – North Carolina becomes the 12th state to ratify the Constitution, with a vote of 194–77

1790s

1790s in the United States: 1790, 1791, 1792, 1793, 1794, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799.

Main article: Timeline of United States history (1790–1819)

1790 – Rhode Island and Providence Plantations becomes the 13th state to ratify the Constitution, with a vote of 34–32 (May 29)

1791 - Ratification of the United States Bill of Rights

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_American_Revolution

French Revolution

Events preceding but pertinent to the French Revolution

Throughout the era

The centuries-old opposition of privileged bodies and castes to royal absolutism.

The Enlightenment leads many European writers to criticize the absolute monarchy and espouse democratic, liberalist, nationalist, and socialist ideas.

The power of the French nobility erodes with the emergence of a powerful bourgeoisie.

Wars compound the debt situation and increase taxation.

Food shortages occur due to poor harvests, economic deregulation and market manipulations.

Ascension of Louis XVI amid Financial Crisis

1774

May 10: Louis XVI, age nineteen, ascends to the throne as the state nears bankruptcy.

Summer: Poor grain harvests for the second year in a row raise the price of bread by winter.

August 24: Louis dismisses his minister Maupeou who tried to reform the provincial parlements which were the spearheads of the aristocracy's resistance to the Crown's absolutism and centralization efforts.

August 24: Louis appoints Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot as controller-general of the finances. He notably liberalized grain commerce which resulted in an increase in bread prices.

1775

April 18: Due to an increase in grain prices, bread riots known as the Flour War begin in Dijon and spread.

May 2–3: Flour War rebels demonstrate in front of the Palace of Versailles.

May 6: Government minister Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes advocates calling an estates-general to end the crisis.

May 11: By a combination of repressive measures and aid, Turgot puts down most of the bread riots.

1776

January: Turgot presents his Six Edicts calling for the abolition of privilege and the taxation of all social classes.

May 11: Turgot is dismissed after having made powerful enemies with his edicts and other policies.

October: Jacques Necker is appointed director-general of the finances. He opposes the deregulation of the grain market implemented by Turgot and stabilizes the social and financial situation in France.

1778

February 6: After years of unofficial support, France formally recognizes the United States dragging it into a war which would further increase France's debt.

1781

February: Necker publishes the Compte rendu au roi (Report to the King), a book explaining government finances in a way that, for the first time, generates public interest in the subject.

May 19: Necker resigns unable to implement his reforms and forced out by a coalition of enemies gathering Princes of the blood, financiers, provincial parliaments and the Ferme générale.

1783

November 3: Charles Alexandre de Calonne is appointed as a compromise between Turgot's liberalism and Necker's dirigism.

1785

October: Calonne, failing to end the financial crisis with credit and loans, attempts monetary reforms.

Assembly of Notables

1786

May 31: The Diamond Necklace Affair concludes with the acquittal of Cardinal Rohan and the discrediting of Marie Antoinette.

August 20: Calonne informs Louis that the royal finances are insolvent and proposes a new tax code.

December 29: The Assembly of Notables, organized by Calonne to endorse his proposals, is convoked.

1787

February 22: First Assembly of Notables meets against a background of state financial instability and general resistance by the nobility to an imposition of taxes and fiscal reforms.

March: Calonne's publication of his proposals and the intransigence of the Notables leads to a public clash and impasse.

April 8: Louis dismisses both Calonne and the keeper of the seals, or minister of justice, Miromesnil, in an attempt to break the impasse.

April 13: Louis appoints Lamoignon keeper of the seals

April 30: The Archbishop of Toulouse and vocal leader of the higher clergy, Loménie de Brienne is appointed chief minister of state.

May 25: The first Assembly of Notables is dissolved.

June: Brienne sends edicts for tax reform legislation to the parlements for registration.

July 2: Parlement of Paris overwhelmingly rejects the royal legislation.

August 6: Legislation is passed at a lit de justice. Subsequently the parlement declares the registration illegal. Supported by public opinion, it initiates criminal proceedings against the disgraced Calonne.

August 15: Louis dismisses the Parisian parlement and orders the parlementaires to remove themselves to Troyes.

August 19: Louis orders the closure of all political clubs in Paris.

September: Civil unrest in the Dutch republic leads to its invasion by the Prussian army, and increases tensions in Paris. Brienne backs down with his legislative demands, settling for an extension of the vingtième tax, and the parlementaires are allowed to return to Paris.

November 19: A royal session of the Paris parlements for registration of new loans turns into an informal lit de justice when Louis doesn't allow a vote to be taken.

November 20: The vocal opposition of the duc d'Orléans leads to his temporary exile by lettres de cachet, and the arrest and imprisonment of two magistrates.

1788

May 6: Orders for the arrest of two Parisian parlementaires, d'Eprémesnil and Goislard, who are most implacably opposed to the government reforms, are issued; the parlement declares its solidarity with the two magistrates

May 7: d'Eprémesnil and Goislard are imprisoned

May 8: Judicial reforms partly abolishing the power of parlements to review legislation are forced through the parlements by Lamoignon in a lit de justice timed to coincide with military sessions

June 7: Day of the Tiles in Grenoble - a meeting called to assemble a parlement in defiance of government order put down by soldiers.

June: Outcry over the enforced reforms ensues, and courts across France refuse to sit

July 5: Brienne begins to consider calling an Estates-General

July 21: Meeting of the Estates of Dauphiné, known as the Assembly of Vizille and led by Jean Joseph Mounier, to elect deputies to the Estates-General, adopts measures to increase the influence of the Third Estate.

August 8: After being informed that the royal treasury is empty, Brienne sets May 1, 1789 as the date for the Estates-General in an attempt to restore confidence with his creditors

August 16: Repayments on government loans stop, and the French government effectively declares bankruptcy

August 25: Brienne resigns as Minister of Finance, and is replaced by the favored choice among the Third Estate, Jacques Necker

September: Necker releases those arrested for criticising Brienne's ministry, leading to a proliferation of political pamphlets

September 14: Malesherbes resigns

November 6: Necker convenes a second Assembly of Notables to discuss the Estates-General

December 12: The second Assembly of Notables is dismissed, having firmly refused to consider doubling the representation of the Third Estate

December 27: Prompted by public controversy, Necker announces that the representation of the Third Estate will be doubled, and that nobles and clergymen will be able to stand for the same cause.

1789

January - Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès publishes What is the Third Estate? (Qu'est-ce que le tiers-état ?).

April 28 - The Réveillon Riots in Paris, caused by low wages and food shortages, lead to about 25 deaths by troops.

May 5: The Estates-General meets for the first time since 1614.

Estates-General and Constituent Assembly

May 5: Meeting of the Estates-General - voting to be by Estate, not by head

May 28: The Third Estate (Tiers Etat) begins to meet on its own, calling themselves "communes" (commons)

June 4: The Dauphin of France dies

June 9: The Third Estate votes for the common verification of credentials, in opposition to the First Estate (the clergy) and the Second Estate (the nobility)

June 13: Some priests from the First Estate choose to join the Third Estate

June 17: The Third Estate (commons) declares itself to be the National Assembly

June 20: Third Estate/National Assembly are locked out of meeting houses; the Third Estate chooses to continue thinking King Louis XVI has locked them out and decides upon a declarative vow, known as the "serment au Jeu de Paume" (The Tennis Court Oath), not to dissolve until the constitution has been established

June 22: National Assembly meets in church of St Louis, joined by a majority of clergy

June 23: Two companies of French guards mutiny in the face of public unrest. Louis XVI holds a Séance Royale, puts forward his 35-point program aimed at allowing the continuation of the three estates.

June 24: 48 nobles, headed by the Duke of Orléans, side with the Third Estate. A significant number of the clergy follow their example.

June 27: Louis recognises the validity of the National Assembly, and orders the First and Second Estates to join the Third.

June 30: Large crowd storms left bank prison and frees mutinous French Guards

July 1: Louis recruits more troops, among them many foreign mercenaries

July 9: National Assembly reconstitutes itself as National Constituent Assembly

July 11: Necker dismissed by Louis; populace sack the monasteries, ransack aristocrats' homes in search of food and weapons

July 12: Camille Desmoulins announces the dismissal of Necker to the Paris crowd. The Karl Eugen, Prince von Lothringen-Lambesc appears at the Tuilleries with an armed guard - a soldier and civilian are killed.

July 13: National Guard formed in Paris, of middle class men.

July 14: Storming of the Bastille; de Launay, (the governor), Foulon (the Secretary of State) and de Flesselles (the then equivalent of the mayor of Paris), amongst others, are massacred.

July 15: Lafayette appointed Commandante of the National Guard.

July 16: Necker recalled, troops pulled out of Paris

July 17: The beginning of the Great Fear, the peasantry revolt against feudalism and a number of urban disturbances and revolts. Many members of the aristocracy flee Paris to become émigrés. Louis XVI accepts the tricolor cockade.

July 18: Publication of Desmoulins' La France libre favouring a republic and arguing that revolutionary violence is justified.

August 4: Surrender of feudal rights: The August Decrees.

August 26: The Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

September 11: The National Assembly grants suspensive veto to Louis XVI; Louis fails to ratify the August acts of the National Assembly.

October 5–6: Outbreak of the Paris mob; Liberal monarchical constitution; the Women's March on Versailles

October 6: Louis XVI agrees to ratify the August Decrees, Palace of Versailles stormed.

King Louis and the National Assembly removed to Paris.

November 2: Church property nationalised and otherwise expropriated

November: First publication of Desmoulins' weekly Histoire des Révolutions ...

December: National Assembly distinguishes between 'active' (monied) and 'passive' (property-less) citizens - only the active could vote

December 12: Assignats are used as legal tender

1790

January: Former Provinces of France replaced by new administrative Departments.

February 13: Suppression of monastic vows and religious orders

March 5: Feudal Committee reports back to National Assembly, delaying the abolition of feudalism.

March 29: Pope Pius condemns the Declaration of the Rights of Man in secret consistory.

May: National Assembly renounces involvement in wars of conquest.

June 19: Nobility abolished by the National Assembly.

July 12: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Demands priests to take an oath of loyalty to the state, splitting the clergy between juring (oath-taking) and non-juring priests.

July: Growing power of the clubs (including: Cordeliers, Jacobin Club)

July: Reorganization of Paris

August 16: The parlements are abolished

September: First edition of radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne printed by Jacques Hébert.

September: Fall of Necker

1791

January 1: Mirabeau elected President of the Assembly

February 28: Day of Daggers; Lafayette orders the arrest of 400 armed aristocrats at the Tuileries Palace

March 2: Abolition of trade guilds

March 10: Pope Pius VI condemns the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

April 2: Death of Mirabeau; first person to be buried in the Pantheon, formerly the Abbey of St Genevieve

April 13: Encyclical of Pope Pius VI, Charitas, condemning the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the unauthorised appointment of Bishops is published

April 18: Louis and Marie-Antoinette prevented from travelling to Saint-Cloud for Easter

June 14: Le Chapelier Law 1791 banning trade unions is passed by National Assembly

June 20–25: Royal family's flight to Varennes

June 25: Louis XVI forced to return to Paris

July 5: Leopold II issues the Padua Circular calling on the royal houses of Europe to come to his brother-in-law, Louis XVI's aid.

July 14: Second anniversary of the fall of the Bastille is celebrated at the Champ de Mars.

July 15: National Assembly declares the king to be inviolable and he is reinstated.

July 17: Anti-Royalist demonstration at the Champ de Mars; National Guard kills fifty people.

July: Remains of Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire reburied in Pantheon.

August 14: Slave revolts in Saint Domingue (Haiti)

August 27: Declaration of Pillnitz (Frederick William II and Leopold II)

September 13–14: Louis XVI accepts the Constitution formally

September 30: Dissolution of the National Constituent Assembly

Legislative Assembly

October 1: Legislative Assembly meets - many young, inexperienced, radical deputies.

November 9 All émigrés are ordered by the Assembly to return under threat of death

November 11 Louis vetoes the ruling of the Assembly on émigrés and priests.

1792

January – March: Food riots in Paris

February 7: Alliance of Austria and Prussia

March 20: Guillotine adopted as official means of execution.

April 20: France declares war against Austria

April 25: Battle Hymn of the Army of the Rhine composed by Rouget de Lisle. First execution using the guillotine.

April 28: France invades Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).

June 20: The people storm the Tuileries and confront the king.

July 5: Legislative Assembly declares that the fatherland is in danger (La Patrie en Danger).

July 25: Brunswick Manifesto - warns that should the royal family be harmed by the popular movement, an "exemplary and eternally memorable revenge" will follow.

July 30: Austria and Prussia begin invasion of France.

July: The tricolor cockade made compulsory for men to wear. La Marseillaise sung by volunteers from Marseilles on their arrival in Paris.

August 1: News of the Brunswick Manifesto reaches Paris - interpreted as proof that Louis XVI has been collaborating with the foreign Coalition.

August 9: Revolutionary commune takes possession of the hôtel de ville.

August 10–13: Storming of the Tuileries Palace. Swiss Guard massacred. Louis XVI of France is arrested and taken into custody, along with his family. Georges Danton becomes Minister of Justice.

August 16: Paris commune presents petition to the Legislative Assembly demanding the establishment of a Revolutionary Tribunal and summoning of a National Convention.

August 19: Lafayette flees to Austria. Invasion of France by Coalition troops led by Duke of Brunswick

August 22: Royalist riots in Brittany, La Vendée and Dauphiné.

September 3: Fall of Verdun to Brunswick's troops.

September 3–7: The September Massacres of prisoners in the Paris prisons.

September 19: Dissolution of Legislative Assembly.

National Convention

September 20:National Convention. French Army stops advance of Coalition troops at Valmy.

September 21: Abolition of royalty and proclamation of the First French Republic.

September 22: First day of the French Revolutionary Calendar (N.B.: calendar introduced in 1793).

December 3: Louis XVI brought to trial, appears before the National Convention (11 & 23 December). Robespierre argues that "Louis must die, so that the country may live".

December 4 : A Belgian delegation is received at the National Convention to claim independence from Austria.

1793

January 21: Citizen Louis Capet (formerly known as Louis XVI) guillotined.

March 7: Outbreak of rebellion against the Revolution: War in the Vendée.

March 11: Revolutionary Tribunal established in Paris.

April 6: Committee of Public Safety established.

May 30: A revolt breaks out in Lyon.

June 2: Arrest of Girondist deputies to National Convention by Jacobins.

June 10: Jacobins gain control of the Committee of Public Safety.

June 24: Ratification of new Constitution by National Convention, but not yet proclaimed. Slavery is abolished in France until 1802 (Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte).

July 3: Louis XVII of France was carried away from Marie Antoinette and was given to the treatment of a cobbler named Antoine Simon as a demand from the National Convention

July 13: Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat by Charlotte Corday.

July 17: Charlotte Corday is guillotined after her trial for murdering Marat

July 27: Robespierre elected to Committee of Public Safety.

July 28: Convention proscribes 21 Girondist deputies as enemies of France.

August 23: Levée en masse (conscription) order.

September 5: Start of Reign of Terror.

September 9: Establishment of sans-culottes paramilitary forces - revolutionary armies.

September 17: Law of Suspects passed.

September 22: A new calendar is introduced, denoting September 22, 1792 as being the start of year I.

September 29: Convention passes the General Maximum, fixing the prices of many goods and services.

October 10: 1793 Constitution put on hold; decree that the government must be "revolutionary until the peace".

October 15: Queen Marie Antoinette is impeached and convicted for treachery against the country, and for treason, originally they claimed that Marie had intercourse with her child, it was at this remark she stood up before the jury and told them no mother would do such a thing, and at that the people agreed they had gone too far on accusations. (so satisfied with treason)

The Dauphin (Louis XVII) is condemned to be executed in the Place de la Revolution.

October 16: Marie Antoinette guillotined.

October 21: An anti-clerical law passed, priests and supporters liable to death on sight.

October 24: Trial of the 21 Girondist deputies by the Revolutionary Tribunal.

October 31: The 21 Girondist deputies guillotined.

November 3: Olympe de Gouges, champion of rights for women, guillotined for Girondist sympathies.

November 8: Madame Roland guillotined as part of purge of Girondists.

November 10: The Cathedral of Notre Dame is re-dedicated to the civic religion of the Cult of Reason.

December: First issue of Desmoulins' Le Vieux Cordelier.

December 4: Law of 14 Frimaire (Law of Revolutionary Government) passed; power becomes centralised on the Committee of Public Safety.

December 23: Anti-Republican forces in the Vendée finally defeated and 6000 prisoners executed.

1794

February: Final 'pacification' of the Vendée - mass killings, scorched earth policy.

March 13: Last edition of Jacques Hébert's Le Père Duchesne produced.

March 19: Hébert and his supporters arrested.

March 24: Hébert and leaders of the Cordeliers guillotined.

March 28: Death of philosopher and mathematician Marquis de Condorcet in prison.

March 30: Danton, Desmoulins and their supporters arrested.

April 5: Danton and Desmoulins guillotined.

May 7: National Convention, led by Robespierre, passes decree to establish the Cult of the Supreme Being.

May 8: Antoine Lavoisier, chemist, guillotined as traitor.

June 8: Festival of the Supreme Being.

June 10: Law of 22 Prairial - the Revolutionary Tribunal became a court of condemnation without the need for witnesses.

June 26: French forces defeat Austrians at the Battle of Fleurus.

July 25: André Chenier, poet, guillotined for conspiring against the Revolution.

July 27–28: Night of 9-10 Thermidor - Robespierre arrested, guillotined without trial, along with other members of the Committee of Public Safety. Commune of Paris abolished. End of the Reign of Terror. Also called The Thermidorian Reaction.

Latter half of 1794: The White Terror - reaction against remaining Jacobins.

November 11: Closure of Jacobin Club.

1795

May 31: Suppression of the Paris Revolutionary Tribunal.

July 14: Marseillaise accepted as the French National Anthem.

August 22: 1795 Constitution ratified - bicameral system, executive Directory of five.

October 5: 13 Vendémiaire - Napoleon's "whiff of grapeshot" quells Paris insurrection.

October 26: National Convention dissolved.

The Directory

November 2: Executive Directory takes on executive power.

1796
March 9: Marriage of Napoleon Bonaparte and Joséphine de Beauharnais

May 10: Battle of Lodi (Napoleon in Italy)

June 4: Beginning of the Siege of Mantua

1797

April 18: Preliminary Peace of Leoben

July 8: Cisalpine Republic established

September 4: Coup d'état of 18 Fructidor revives Republican measures

October 18: Treaty of Campo Formio

1798

February: Roman Republic proclaimed

April: Helvetian Republic proclaimed

May 11: Law of 22 Floréal Year VI - Council elections annulled, left wing deputies excluded from Council.

July 21: Battle of the Pyramids

August 1: Battle of the Nile - Nelson's victory isolates Napoleon in Egypt.

December 24: Alliance between Russia and Britain

1799

June 17–19: Battle of the Trebia (Suvorov defeats French)

June 18: Coup of 30 Prairial Year VII - removed Directors, left Sieyès as dominant figure in government.

August 24: Napoleon leaves Egypt.

October 9: Napoleon returns to France

October 22: Russians withdraw from coalition

November 9: The Coup d'État of 18 Brumaire: end of the Directory

December 24: Constitution of the Year VIII - leadership of Napoleon established under the Consulate. French Revolution may be considered ended.

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution

Inventors During the Industrial Revolution

John Kay

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kay_(flying_shuttle)

Biography: John Kay was born on 17 June 1704 (in the Julian calendar) in the Lancashire hamlet of Walmersley, just north of Bury. His yeoman farmer father, Robert, owned the "Park" estate in Walmersley, and John was born there. Robert died before John was born, leaving Park House to his eldest son. As Robert's fifth son (out of ten), John was bequeathed £40 (at age 21) and an education until the age of 14. His mother was responsible for educating him until she remarried.

Inventions 

John Kay's son, Robert, stayed in Britain, and in 1760 developed the "drop-box", which enabled looms to use multiple flying shuttles simultaneously, allowing multicolour wefts.

The Wright brothers

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers

Biography: The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who are credited with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. From 1905 to 1907, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible.

Inventions

In July 1899 Wilbur put wing warping to the test by building and flying a biplane kite with a five-foot (1.5m) wingspan. When the wings were warped, or twisted, one end of the wings produced more lift and the other end less lift. The unequal lift made the wings tilt, or bank: the end with more lift rose, while the other end dropped, causing a turn in the direction of the lower end. The warping was controlled by four cords attached to the kite, which led to two sticks held by the kite flyer, who tilted them in opposite directions to twist the wings.

The Wrights based the design of their kite and full-size gliders on work done in the 1890s by other aviation pioneers. They adopted the basic design of the Chanute-Herring biplane hang glider ("double-decker" as the Wrights called it), which flew well in the 1896 experiments near Chicago, and used aeronautical data on lift that Lilienthal had published. The Wrights designed the wings with camber, a curvature of the top surface. The brothers did not discover this principle, but took advantage of it. The better lift of a cambered surface compared to a flat one was first discussed scientifically by Sir George Cayley. Lilienthal, whose work the Wrights carefully studied, used cambered wings in his gliders, proving in flight the advantage over flat surfaces. The wooden uprights between the wings of the Wright glider were braced by wires in their own version of Chanute's modified Pratt truss, a bridge-building design he used for his biplane glider (initially built as a triplane). The Wrights mounted the horizontal elevator in front of the wings rather than behind, apparently believing this feature would help to avoid, or protect them, from a nosedive and crash like the one that killed Lilienthal. Wilbur incorrectly believed a tail was not necessary, and their first two gliders did not have one. According to some Wright biographers, Wilbur probably did all the gliding until 1902, perhaps to exercise his authority as older brother and to protect Orville from harm as he did not want to have to explain to Bishop Wright if Orville got injured.

Sir Richard Arkwright

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Arkwright

Biography: Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 in Preston, - 3 August 1792 in Cromford) was an inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. Although the patents were eventually overturned, he is credited with inventing the spinning frame, which, following the transition to water power, was renamed the water frame. He also patented a rotary carding engine that transformed raw cotton into cotton lap.

Arkwright's achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material (cotton) to create mass-produced yarn. His skills of organization made him, more than anyone else, the creator of the modern factory system, especially in his mill at Cromford, Derbyshire. Later in his life Arkwright was known as 'the Father of the Industrial Revolution'.

Arkwright had previously assisted Thomas Highs, and there is strong evidence to support the claim that it was Highs, and not Arkwright, who invented the spinning frame. However, Highs was unable to patent or develop the idea for lack of finance. Highs, who was also credited with inventing a Spinning Jenny several years before James Hargreaves produced his, probably got the idea for the spinning frame from the work of Bray Wyatt and Lewis Paul in the 1730s and '40s.

Inventions

The machine used a succession of uneven rollers rotating at increasingly higher speeds to draw out the roving, before applying the twist via a bobbin-and-flyer mechanism. It could make cotton thread thin and strong enough for the warp, or long threads, of cloth.

His main contribution was not so much the inventions as the highly disciplined and profitable factory system he set up at Cromford, which was widely emulated. There were two 13-hour shifts per day including an overlap. Bells rang at 5 am and 5 pm and the gates were shut precisely at 6 am and 6 pm. Anyone who was late not only could not work that day but lost an extra day's pay.

Jethro Tull

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)

Biography: Tull was born in Basildon, Berkshire, to Jethro Tull, Sr and his wife Dorothy, née Buckeridge or Buckridge. He was baptised there on 30 March 1674. He grew up in Bradfield, Berkshire and matriculated at St John's College, Oxford at the age of 17. He was educated for the legal profession, but appears not to have taken a degree. He became a member of Staple Inn, and was called to the bar on 11 December 1693, by the benchers of Gray's Inn.

Tull died in 1741 at Prosperous Farm at Hungerford. He is buried in the churchyard of St Bartholomew's Church, Lower Basildon, Berkshire, near his birthplace. His gravestone bears the burial date 9 March 1740 using the Old Style calendar, which is equivalent to the modern date 20 March 1740.

Inventions

Drill husbandry: Jethro Tull invented some machinery for the purpose of carrying out his system of drill husbandry, about 1733. His first invention was a drill-plough to sow wheat and turnip seed in drills, three rows at a time. There were two boxes for the seed, and these, with the coulters, were placed one set behind the other, so that two sorts of seed might be sown at the same time. A harrow to cover in the seed was attached behind.

On earth: Jethro Tull considered earth to be the sole food of plants. "Too much nitre," Tull tells us, "corrodes a plant, too much water drowns it, too much air dries the roots of it, too much heat burns it; but too much earth a plant can never have, unless it be therein wholly buried: too much earth or too fine can never possibly be given to their roots, for they never receive so much of it as to surfeit the plant." Again, he declares elsewhere, "That which nourishes and augments a plant is the true food of it. Every plant is earth, and the growth and true increase of a plant is the addition of more earth." And in his chapter on the "Pasture of Plants," Tull told his readers with great gravity that "this pasturage is the inner or internal superficies of the earth; or, which is the same thing, it is the superficies of the pores, cavities, or interstices of the divided parts of the earth, which are of two sorts, natural and artificial. The mouths or lacteals of roots take their pabulum, being fine particles of earth, from the superficies of the pores or cavities, wherein their roots are included."

Hoeing by hand: The hand hoe is an instrument too well known to need any description. The operation of hoeing is beneficial, not only as being destructive of weeds, but as loosening the surface of the soil, and rendering it more permeable to the gases and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere. Hoeing, therefore, not only protects the farmer's crops from being weakened by weeds, but it renders the soil itself more fertile, as more capable of supplying the plants with their food. Jethro Tull was the first who warmly and ably inculcated the advantages of hoeing cultivated soils. He correctly enough told the farmers of his time, that as fine hoed ground is not so long soaked by rain, so the dews never suffer it to become perfectly dry. This appears by the plants which flourish in this, whilst those in the hard ground are starved. In the driest weather good hoeing procures moisture to the roots of plants, though the ignorant and incurious fancy it lets in the drought.

James Hargreaves

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hargreaves

Biography: James Hargreaves was born at Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle in Lancashire. He was described as "stout, broadset man of about five-foot ten, or rather more". He was illiterate and worked as a hand loom weaver during most of his life. He married and baptismal records show he has 13 children, of whom the author Baines in 1835 was aware of '6 or 7'. He was survived by eight children.

Inventions

The idea for the spinning jenny is said to have come from the inventor seeing a one-thread wheel overturned upon the floor, when both the wheel and the spindle continued to revolve. He realized that if a number of spindles were placed upright and side by side, several threads might be spun at once. The spinning jenny was confined to producing cotton weft, it was unable to produce yarn of sufficient quality for the warp. High quality warp was later supplied by Arkwright's spinning frame.

Thomas Savery

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Savery

Biography: Thomas Savery (c. 1650–1715) was an English inventor and engineer, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England. He is famous for his invention of the first commercially used steam powered engine.

Inventions

Fire Engine Act: Savery's original patent of July 1698 gave 14 years' protection; the next year, 1699, an Act of Parliament was passed which extended his protection for a further 21 years. This Act became known as the "Fire Engine Act". Savery's patent covered all engines that raised water by fire, and it thus played an important role in shaping the early development of steam machinery in the British Isles.

Application of the engine: A few Savery engines were tried in mines, an unsuccessful attempt being made to use one to clear water from a pool called Broad Waters in Wednesbury (then in Staffordshire) and nearby coal mines. This had been covered by a sudden eruption of water some years before. However the engine could not be 'brought to answer'. The quantity of steam raised was so great as 'rent the whole machine to pieces'. The engine was laid aside, and the scheme for raising water was dropped as impracticable. This may have been in about 1705.

Robert Fulton 

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fulton

Biography: Robert Fulton was born on a farm in Little Britain, Pennsylvania, on November 14, 1765. He had at least three sisters – Isabella, Elizabeth, and Mary, and a younger brother, Abraham. He then married Harriet Livingston and had four children, Julia, Mary, Cornelia, and Robert. His father, Robert, had been a close friend to the father of painter Benjamin West, (1738-1820). Fulton later met West in England and they became friends.

Inventions

He became caught up in the enthusiasm of the "Canal Mania" and in 1793 began developing his ideas for tub-boat canals with inclined planes instead of locks. He obtained a patent for this idea in 1794 and also began working on ideas for the steam power of boats. He published a pamphlet about canals and patented a dredging machine and several other inventions. In 1794 he moved to Manchester to gain practical knowledge of English canal engineering. Whilst there he became friendly with Robert Owen, the cotton manufacturer and early socialist. Owen agreed to finance the development and promotion of his designs for inclined planes and earth-digging machines and was instrumental in introducing him to a canal company where he was awarded a sub-contract. However, this practical experience was not a success and he gave up the contract after a short time.

Samuel F. B. Morse

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse

Biography: Samuel F. B. Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the first child of the pastor Jedidiah Morse (1761–1826), who was also a geographer, and his wife Elizabeth Ann Finley Breese (1766–1828). His father was a great preacher of the Calvinist faith and supporter of the American Federalist party. He thought it helped preserve Puritan traditions (strict observance of Sabbath, among other things), and believed in the Federalist support of an alliance with Britain and a strong central government. Morse strongly believed in education within a Federalist framework, alongside the instillation of Calvinist virtues, morals and prayers for his first son.

Inventions

Telegraph: As noted, in 1825 New York City had commissioned Morse to paint a portrait of Lafayette in Washington, DC. While Morse was painting, a horse messenger delivered a letter from his father that read, "Your dear wife is convalescent". The next day he received a letter from his father detailing his wife's sudden death. Morse immediately left Washington for his home at New Haven, leaving the portrait of Lafayette unfinished. By the time he arrived, his wife had already been buried. Heartbroken that for days he was unaware of his wife's failing health and her death, he decided to explore a means of rapid long distance communication.

Relays: Morse encountered the problem of getting a telegraphic signal to carry over more than a few hundred yards of wire. His breakthrough came from the insights of Professor Leonard Gale, who taught chemistry at New York University (he was a personal friend of Joseph Henry). With Gale's help, Morse introduced extra circuits or relays at frequent intervals, and was soon able to send a message through ten miles (16 km) of wire. This was the great breakthrough he had been seeking. Morse and Gale were soon joined by Alfred Vail, an enthusiastic young man with excellent skills, insights and money.

Alexander Bell 

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell

Biography: Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3, 1847. The family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–70) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–67), both of whom would die of tuberculosis. His father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace (née Symonds). Born as just "Alexander Bell", at age 10 he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers.[N 6] For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name "Graham", chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, a Canadian being treated by his father who had become a family friend. To close relatives and friends he remained "Aleck".

As a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbor whose family operated a flour mill, the scene of many forays. Young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. He was told wheat had to be dehusked through a laborious process and at the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation and used steadily for a number of years. In return, John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to "invent".

Inventions

Telephone: By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston "laboratory" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success.[N 14] While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a "phonautograph", a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves. Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas.

Eli Whitney 

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Whitney

Biography: Eli Whitney (December 8, 1765 – January 8, 1825) was an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution and shaped the economy of the Antebellum South. Whitney's invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost many profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin. Thereafter, he turned his attention into securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army. He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825.

Inventions

Cotton gin: The cotton gin is a mechanical device that removes the seeds from cotton, a process that had previously been extremely labor-intensive. The word gin is short for engine. The cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside. Whitney occasionally told a story wherein he was pondering an improved method of seeding the cotton when he was inspired by observing a cat attempting to pull a chicken through a fence, and could only pull through some of the feathers.

Milling machine: Machine tool historian Joseph W. Roe credited Whitney with inventing the first milling machine circa 1818. Subsequent work by other historians (Woodbury; Smith; Muir; Battison [cited by Baida]) suggests that Whitney was among a group of contemporaries all developing milling machines at about the same time (1814 to 1818), and that the others were more important to the innovation than Whitney was. (The machine that excited Roe may not have been built until 1825, after Whitney's death.) Therefore, no one person can properly be described as the inventor of the milling machine.

Philosophers During the Enlightenment Period

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau

Biography: Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss Confederacy. Since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Five generations before Rousseau, his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva in 1549, where he became a wine merchant.

On July 4, 1778, Rousseau was buried on the Île des Peupliers which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. On October 11, 1794, his remains were moved to the Panthéon, where they were placed near the remains of Voltaire. In May 1814, during the Bourbon Restoration, the remains of Rousseau and Voltaire were secretly retrieved from the Panthéon by some religious fanatics, and buried in a dumping ground near Paris; the remains are now untraceable.

Ideas

Theory of Natural Human: The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said 'This is mine', and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.

Stages of human development: Rousseau believed that the savage stage was not the first stage of human development, but the third stage. Rousseau held that this third savage stage of human societal development was an optimum, between the extreme of the state of brute animals and animal-like ‘ape-men’ on the one hand, and the extreme of decadent civilized life on the other. This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, which Arthur Lovejoy conclusively showed misrepresents Rousseau's thought.

Political theory: The Social Contract outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article Economie Politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they."

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu

Biography: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (/ˈmɒntɨskjuː/; French: [mɔ̃tɛskjø]; 18 January 1689 – 10 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French lawyer, man of letters, and political philosopher who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He did more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon.

Ideas

Montesquieu is credited as being among the progenitors, which include Herodotus and Tacitus, of anthropology, as being among the first to extend comparative methods of classification to the political forms in human societies. Indeed, the French political anthropologist Georges Balandier considered Montesquieu to be "the initiator of a scientific enterprise that for a time performed the role of cultural and social anthropology". According to social anthropologist D. F. Pocock, Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws was "the first consistent attempt to survey the varieties of human society, to classify and compare them and, within society, to study the inter-functioning of institutions."Montesquieu's political anthropology gave rise to his theories on government. When Catherine the Great wrote her Nakaz (Instruction) for the Legislative Assembly she had created to clarify the existing Russian law code, she avowed borrowing heavily from Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws, although she discarded or altered portions that did not support Russia's absolutist bureaucratic monarchy.

François-Marie Arouet 

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire

Biography: François-Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children (three of whom survived) of François Arouet (1650 – 1 January 1722), a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie Marguerite d'Aumart (ca. 1660 – 13 July 1701), from a noble family of the province of Poitou. Some speculation surrounds his date of birth, which Voltaire always claimed to be 20 February 1694. Voltaire was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand (1704–1711), where he learned Latin and Greek; later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. 

By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in Caen, Normandy. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire's wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. His father then obtained a job for him as a secretary to the French ambassador in the Netherlands, where Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous elopement was foiled by Voltaire's father and he was forced to return to France.

Most of Voltaire's early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government and religious intolerance. These activities were to result in numerous imprisonments and exiles. One satirical verse about the Régent, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, led to his imprisonment in the Bastille for eleven months. While there, he wrote his debut play, Œdipe. Its success established his reputation.

Ideas

He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people's rights.

Religious views: Like other key Enlightenment thinkers, Voltaire was a deist, expressing the idea: "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists necessary, eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of reason."Voltaire held mixed views of the Abrahamic religions but had a favourable view of Hinduism.

In a 1763 essay, Voltaire supported the toleration of other religions and ethnicities: "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?"

In one of his many denunciations of priests of every religious sect, Voltaire describes them as those who "rise from an incestuous bed, manufacture a hundred versions of God, then eat and drink God, then piss and shit God."

John Locke

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke

Biography: John Locke FRS (/ˈlɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism". Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.

Ideas

Theories of religious tolerance: Locke, writing his Letters Concerning Toleration (1689–92) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance. Three arguments are central: Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints; Even if they could, enforcing a single "true religion" would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence; Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.

Denis Diderot

©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Diderot

Biography: Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at a Jesuit collège in Langres.

His parents were Didier Diderot (1685–1759) a cutler, maître coutelier, and his wife Angélique Vigneron (1677–1748). Three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot (1715–97) and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot (1722–87), and finally their sister Angélique Diderot (1720–49). According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, sometimes referring to her as "a female Socrates".

Diderot died of pulmonary thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. He has several times been denied burial in the Panthéon with other French notables, but the French government did recently announce the possibility of memorializing him in this fashion, on the 300th anniversary of his birth (October 2013). For the moment, however, this idea seems to have been tabled.

Ideas

The Skeptic's Walk: In 1747, Diderot wrote the The Skeptic's Walk (French:Promenade du sceptique) in which a deist, an atheist, and a pantheist have a dialogue on the nature of divinity. The deist gives the argument from design. The atheist says that the universe is better explained by physics, chemistry, matter, and motion. The pantheist says that the cosmic unity of mind and matter, which are co-eternal and comprise the universe, is God. This work remained unpublished till 1830 since the local police—warned by the priests of another attack on Christianity—either seized the manuscript or made Diderot give an undertaking that he would not publish this work according to different versions of what happened.

The Indiscreet Jewels: In 1748 Diderot found the need to raise money at short notice. He had become a father through his wife, and his mistress Mme. de Puisieux was making financial demands from him. At this time, Diderot had stated to Mme. de Puisieux that writing a novel was a trivial task, whereupon she had challenged his comment. In response, Diderot wrote his novel The Indiscreet Jewels (French:Les Bijoux Indiscrets). The book is about the magical ring of a Sultan which induces any woman's "discreet jewels"to confess their sexual experiences when the ring is pointed at them. In all, the ring is pointed at thirty different women in the book—usually at a dinner or a social meeting—with the Sultan typically being visible to the woman. However, since the ring has the additional property of making its owner invisible when required, a few of the sexual experiences recounted are through direct observation with the Sultan making himself invisible and placing his person in the unsuspecting woman's boudoir.

Scientific work: All his life Diderot would keep writing on science in a desultory way. The scientific work of which he himself was most proud of was the Memoires sur differents sujets de mathematique (1748) which contains original ideas on acoustics, tension, air resistance, and "a project for a new organ" which could be played by all. Some of Diderot's scientific works were applauded by contemporary publications of his time like The Gentleman's Magazine, the Journal des savants; and the Jesuit publication Journal de Trevoux which invited more such work "on the part of a man as clever and able as M. Diderot seems to be, of whom we should also observe that his style is as elegant, trenchant, and unaffected as it is lively and ingenious."